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examples in order to make it an empty name； often； on the contrary； it
is only well…meant strictness in determining the true moral import
of actions according to an unpromising law。 parison with such
a law； instead of with examples； lowers self…conceit in moral
matters very much； and not merely teaches humility； but makes every
one feel it when he examines himself closely。 Nevertheless； we can for
the most part observe； in those who defend the purity of purpose in
giving examples that where there is the presumption of uprightness
they are anxious to remove even the least spot； lest； if all
examples had their truthfulness disputed； and if the purity of all
human virtue were denied； it might in the end be regarded as a mere
phantom； and so all effort to attain it be made light of as vain
affectation and delusive conceit。
I do not know why the educators of youth have not long since made
use of this propensity of reason to enter with pleasure upon the
most subtle examination of the practical questions that are thrown up；
and why they have not； after first laying the foundation of a purely
moral catechism； searched through the biographies of ancient and
modern times with the view of having at hand instances of the duties
laid down； in which； especially by parison of similar actions under
different circumstances； they might exercise the critical judgement of
their scholars in remarking their greater or less moral
significance。 This is a thing in which they would find that even early
youth； which is still unripe for speculation of other kinds； would
soon Bee very acute and not a little interested； because it feels
the progress of its faculty of judgement； and； what is most important；
they could hope with confidence that the frequent practice of
knowing and approving good conduct in all its purity； and on the other
hand of remarking with regret or contempt the least deviation from it；
although it may be pursued only as a sport in which children may
pete with one another； yet will leave a lasting impression of
esteem on the one hand and disgust on the other； and so； by the mere
habit of looking on such actions as deserving approval or blame； a
good foundation would be laid for uprightness in the future course
of life。 Only I wish they would spare them the example of so…called
noble （supermeritorious） actions； in which our sentimental books so
much abound； and would refer all to duty merely； and to the worth that
a man can and must give himself in his own eyes by the consciousness
of not having transgressed it； since whatever runs up into empty
wishes and longings after inaccessible perfection produces mere heroes
of romance； who； while they pique themselves on their feeling for
transcendent greatness； release themselves in return from the
observance of mon and every…day obligations； which then seem to
them petty and insignificant。*
*It is quite proper to extol actions that display a great；
unselfish； sympathizing mind or humanity。 But； in this case； we must
fix attention not so much on the elevation of soul； which is very
fleeting and transitory； as on the subjection of the heart to duty；
from which a more enduring impression may be expected； because this
implies principle （whereas the former only implies ebullitions）。 One
need only reflect a little and he will always find a debt that he
has by some means incurred towards the human race （even if it were
only this； by the inequality of men in the civil constitution；
enjoys advantages on account of which others must be the more in
want）； which will prevent the thought of duty from being repressed
by the self…placent imagination of merit。
But if it is asked： 〃What； then； is really pure morality； by which
as a touchstone we must test the moral significance of every
action；〃 then I must admit that it is only philosophers that can
make the decision of this question doubtful； for to mon sense it
has been decided long ago； not indeed by abstract general formulae；
but by habitual use； like the distinction between the right and left
hand。 We will then point out the criterion of pure virtue in an
example first； and； imagining that it is set before a boy； of say
ten years old； for his judgement； we will see whether he would
necessarily judge so of himself without being guided by his teacher。
Tell him the history of an honest man whom men want to persuade to
join the calumniators of an innocent and powerless person （say Anne
Boleyn； accused by Henry VIII of England）。 He is offered advantages；
great gifts； or high rank； he rejects them。 This will excite mere
approbation and applause in the mind of the hearer。 Now begins the
threatening of loss。 Amongst these traducers are his best friends； who
now renounce his friendship； near kinsfolk； who threaten to disinherit
him （he being without fortune）； powerful persons； who can persecute
and harass him in all places and circumstances； a prince； who
threatens him with loss of freedom； yea； loss of life。 Then to fill
the measure of suffering； and that he may feel the pain that only
the morally good heart can feel very deeply； let us conceive his
family threatened with extreme distress and want； entreating him to
yield； conceive himself； though upright； yet with feelings not hard or
insensible either to passion or to his own distress； conceive
him； I say； at the moment when he wishes that he had never lived to
see the day that exposed him to such unutterable anguish； yet
remaining true to his uprightness of purpose； without wavering or even
doubting； then will my youthful hearer be raised gradually from mere
approval to admiration； from that to amazement； and finally to the
greatest veneration； and a lively wish that be himself could be such a
man （though certainly not in such circumstances）。 Yet virtue is here
worth so much only because it costs so much； not because it brings any
profit。 All the admiration； and even the endeavour to resemble this
character； rest wholly on the purity of the moral principle； which can
only be strikingly shown by removing from the springs of action
everything that men may regard as part of happiness。 Morality； then；
must have the more power over the human heart the more purely it is
exhibited。 Whence it follows that； if the law of morality and the
image of holiness and virtue are to exercise any influence at all on
our souls； they can do so only so far as they are laid to heart in
their purity as motives； unmixed with any view to prosperity； for it
is in suffering that they display themselves most nobly。 Now that
whose removal strengthens the effect of a moving force must have
been a hindrance； consequently every admixture of motives taken from
our own happiness is a hindrance to the influence of the moral law
on the heart。 I affirm further that even in that admired action； if
the motive from which it was done was a high regard for duty； then
it is just this respect for the law that has the greatest influence on
the mind of the spectator； not any pretension to a supposed inward
greatness of mind or noble meritorious sentiments； consequently
duty； not merit； must have not only the most definite； but； when it is
represented in the true light of its inviolability； the most
penetrating； influence on the mind。
It is more necessary than ever to direct attention to this method in
our times； when men hope to produce more effect on the mind with soft；
tender feelings； or high…flown； puffing…up pretensions； which rather
wither the heart than strengthen it； than by a plain and earnest
representation of duty； which is more suited to human imperfection and
to progress in goodness。 To set before children； as a pattern； actions
that are called noble； magnanimous； meritorious； with the notion of
captivating them by infusing enthusiasm for such actions； is to defeat
our end。 For as they are still so backward in the observance of the
monest duty； and even in the correct estimation of it； this means
simply to make them fantastical romancers betimes。 But； even with
the instructed and experienced part of mankind； this supposed spring
has； if not an injurious； at least no genuine； moral effect on the
heart； which； however； is what it was desired to produce。
All feelings； especially those that are to produce unwonted
exertions； must acplish their effect at the moment they are at
their height and before the calm down； otherwise they effect
nothing； for as there was nothing to strengthen the heart； but only to
excite it； it naturally returns to its normal moderate tone and； thus；
falls back into its previous languor。 Principles must be built on
conceptions； on any other basis there can only be paroxysms； which can
give the person no moral worth； nay； not even confidence in himself；
without which the highest good in man； consciousness of the morality
of his mind and character； cannot exist。 Now if these conceptions
are to bee subjectively practical； we must not rest satisfied
with admiring the objective law of morality； and esteeming it highly
in reference to humanity； but we must consider the conception of it in
relation to man as an individual； and then this law appears in a
form indeed that is highly deserving of respect； but not so pleasant
as if it belonged to the element to which he is naturally
accustomed； but on the contrary as often pelling him to quit this
element； not without self…denial； and to betake himself to a higher；
in which he can only maintain himself with trouble and with
unceasing apprehension of a relapse。 In a word； the moral law
demands obedience； from duty not from predilection； which cannot and
ought not to be presupposed at all。
Let us now see； in an example； whether the conception of an
action； as a noble and magnanimous one； has more subjective moving
power than if the action is conceived merely as duty in relation to
the solemn law of morality。 The action by which a man endeavours at
the greatest peril of life to rescue people from shipwreck； at last
losing his life in the attempt； is reckoned on one side as duty； but
on the other and for the most part as a meritorious action； but our
esteem for it is much weakened by the notion of duty to himself
which seems in this case to be somewhat infringed。 More decisive is
the magnanimous sacrifice of life for the safety of one's country； and
yet there still remains some scruple whether it is a perfect duty to
devote one's self to this purpose spontaneously and unbidden； and
the action has not in itself the full force of a pattern and impulse
to imitation。 But if an indispensable duty be in question； the
transgression of which violates the moral law itself； and without
regard to the welfare of mankind； and as it were tramples on its
holiness （such as are usually called duties to God； because in Him
we conceive the ideal of holiness in substance）； then we give our most
perfect esteem to the pursuit of it at the sacrifice of all that can
have any value for the dearest inclinations； and we find our soul
strengthened and elevated by such an example； when we convince
ourselves by contemplation of it that human nature is capable of so
great an elevation above every motive that nature can oppose to it。
Juvenal describes such an example in a climax which makes the reader
feel vividly the force of the spring that is contained in the pure law
of duty； as duty：
Esto bonus miles； tutor bonus； arbiter idem
Integer； ambiguae si quando citabere testis
Incertaeque rei； Phalaris licet imperet ut sis
Falsus； et admoto dictet periuria tauro；
Summum crede nefas animam praeferre pudori；
Et propter vitam vivendi perdere causas。*
*＇Juvenal； Satirae； 〃Be you a good soldier； a faithful tutor； an
uncorrupted umpire also； if you are summoned as a witness in a
doubtful and uncertain thing； though Phalaris should mand that
you should be false； and should dictate perjuries with the bull
brought to you； believe it the highest impiety to prefer life to
reputation； and for the sake of life； to lose the causes of living。〃＇
When we can bring any flattering thought of merit into our action；
then the motive is already somewhat alloyed with self…love and has
therefore some assistance from the side of the sensibility。 But to
postpone everything to the holiness of duty alone； and to be conscious
that we can because our own reason recognises this as its mand
and says that we ought to do it； this is； as it were； to raise
ourselves altogether above the world of sense； and there is
inseparably involved in the same a consciousness of the law； as a
spring of a faculty that controls the sensibility； and although this
is not always attended with effect； yet frequent engagement with
this spring； and the at first minor attempts at using it； give hope
that this effect may be wrought； and that by degrees the greatest； and
that a purely moral interest in it may be produced in us。
The method then takes the following course。 At first we are only
concerned to make the judging of actions by moral laws a natural
employment acpanying all our own free actions； as well as the
observation of those of others； and to make it as it were a habit； and
to sharpen this judgement； asking first whether the action conforms
objectiv