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interest or a short…term loan； such as a bank overdra。。； usually at a variable
rate of interest。 All short…term liabilities owed by a business and due for
payment within 12 months are referred to as creditors falling due within
one year； and long…term indebtedness is called creditors falling due a。。er
one year。
So far in our High Note example； the money spent on ‘capital’ items
such as the ￡12；500 spent on a puter and fixtures and fi。。ings have
been ignored； as has the ￡9；108 worth of sheet music etc remaining in
stock waiting to be sold and the ￡12；000 of money owed by customers who
have yet to pay up。 An assumption has to be made about where the cash
deficit will be made up； and the most logical short…term source is a bank
overdra。。。
For High Note at the end of September the balance sheet is set out in
Table 1。8。
Accounting 33
Balance sheet structure
The layout of the balance sheet using UK accounting rules is something of
a jumble； with assets and liabilities intermingled。 In the United States the
balance sheet is traditionally set out horizontally； with the assets on one
side and the liabilities on the other。
Table 1。8 High Note balance sheet at 30 September
￡ ￡
Assets
Fixed assets
Fixtures； fi。。ing； equipment 11；500
puter 1；000
Total fixed assets 12；500
Working capital
Current assets
Stock 9；108
Debtors 12；000
Cash 0
21；108
Less current liabilities （creditors falling due
within one year）
Overdra。。 4；908
Due to suppliers 0
4；908
Net current assets
＇Working capital （CA…CL）＇ 16；200
Total assets less current liabilities 28；700
Less creditors falling due a。。er one year
Long…term bank loan 10；000
Net total assets 18；700
Capital and reserves
Owner’s capital introduced 10；000
Profit retained （from P&L account） 8；700
Total capital and reserves 18；700
34 The Thirty…Day MBA
Working capital
You will also have noticed in this example that the assets and liabilities
have been jumbled together in the middle to net off the current assets
and current liabilities and so end up with a figure for the working capital。
‘Current’ in accounting means within the trading cycle； usually taken to be
one year。 Stock will be used up and debtors will pay up within the year；
and overdra。。 being repayable on demand also appears as a short…term
liability。
There are a number of other items not shown in the working capital
section of the example balance sheet that should appear； such as liability
for tax and VAT that have not yet been paid； and these should appear as
current liabilities。
Intangible fixed assets
There are a number of seemingly invisible items that nevertheless have
been acquired for a measurable money cost and so have to be accounted for：
。 Goodwill： This is where the price paid for an asset is above its fair
market price。 This is fairly mon in the case of acquisitions where
petition for a pany can push prices higher。
。 Intellectual property such as patents； copyright； designs and logos。
These items too are amortized over their working life。 So； for example； if a
patent is considered to have a 10…year life and cost ￡1 million to acquire； it
would be wri。。en down in the accounts by ￡100；000 a year。
Liverpool Football Club’s accounts （Table 1。9） show how a particular
type of ‘intellectual’ property is dealt with。 In this case it is footballers
being contracted in and out of the club。 The same principles apply to any
intangible asset。
The costs associated with the acquisition of players’ registrations are
capitalized as intangible fixed assets。 These costs are fully amortized in
equal instalments over the period of players’ initial contracts。 Where a
player’s contract is extended beyond its initial period； amortization is
calculated over the period of the extended contract from the date on which
it is signed。 Players’ registrations are wri。。en down for impairment when
the carrying amount exceeds the amount recoverable through use or sale。
Accounting for stock
Deciding on the stock figure to put into a balance sheet is a tricky calculation。
Theoretically it is simple； a。。er all； you know what you paid for
it。 The rule that stock should be entered in the balance sheet at cost or
Accounting 35
market…price； whichever is the lower； is also not too difficult to follow。 But
in the real world a business keeps on buying in stock so it has product to
sell； and the cost can vary every time a purchase is made。
Take the example of a business selling a breakfast cereal。 Four pallets
of cereal are bought in from various suppliers at prices of ￡1；000； ￡1；020；
￡1；040 and ￡1；060 respectively； a total of ￡4；120。 At the end of the period
three pallets have been sold； so logically the cost of goods sold in the profit
and loss account will show a figure of ￡3；060 （￡1；000 ＋ ￡1；020 ＋ ￡1；040）。 The
last pallet costing ￡1；060 will be the figure to put into the balance sheet；
thus ensuring that all ￡4；120 of total costs are accounted for。
This method of dealing with stock is known as FIFO （first in first out）；
for obvious reasons。 There are two other popular costing methods that
have their own merits。 LIFO （last in first out） is based on the argument that
Table 1。9 Part of the balance sheet for Liverpool Football Club and Athletic
Grounds Plc
2006 2005
￡’000 ￡’000
Fixed assets
Intangible assets （see note 10） 81；350 80；105
Tangible assets 34；947 36；811
Investments 3 3
Total 116；300 116；919
Note 10。 Intangible fixed assets
Cost
At 1 August 2005 134；706
Additions in year 41；753
Disposals in year （36；868）
At 31 July 2006 139；591
Amortisation
At 1 August 2005 54；601
Charge for year 24；636
Impairments in year 5；250
Disposals in year （26；246）
At 31 July 2006 58；241
Net book amount
At 31 July 2006 81；350
At 31 July 2005 80；105
36 The Thirty…Day MBA
if you are staying in business you will have to keep on replacing stock at
the latest （higher） price； so you might just as well get used to that sooner
by accounting for it in your profit and loss account。 In this case the cost of
goods sold would be ￡3；120 （￡1；060 ＋ ￡1；040 ＋ ￡1；020）； rather than the ￡3；060
that FIFO produces。
The third popular costing method is the average cost method； which
does what it says on the box。 In the above example this would produce
a cost midway between those obtained by the other two methods； in this
example ￡3；090。
All these methods have their merits； but FIFO usually wins the argument
as it acmodates the realities that prices rise steadily and goods move in
and out of a business in the order in which they are bought。 It would be
a very badly run grocer’s shop that sold its last delivery of cereal before
clearing out its existing stocks。
Methods of depreciation
The depreciation is how we show the asset being ‘consumed’ over its
working life。 It is simply a bookkeeping record to allow us to allocate some
of the cost of an asset to the appropriate time period。 The time period will
be determined by such factors as how long the working life of the asset is。
The principal methods of depreciation used in business are：
。 The straight…line method： This assumes that the asset will be ‘consumed’
evenly throughout its life。 If； for example； an asset is being bought for
￡1；200 and sold at the end of five years for ￡200； the amount of cost we
have to write off is ￡1；000。 Using 20％； so that the whole 100％ of cost is
allocated； we can work out the ‘book value’ for each year。
。 The declining…balance method： This works in a similar way； but instead
of an even depreciation each year we assume the drop will be less。
Some assets； motor vehicles for example； will reduce sharply in their
first year and less so later on。 So at the end of year 1； both these methods
of depreciation will result in a ￡200 fall； but in year 2 the picture starts
to change。 The straight…line method takes a further fall of ￡200； while
the declining…balance method reduces by 20％ （our agreed depreciation
rate） of ￡800 （the balance of ￡1；000 minus the ￡200 depreciation so far）；
which is ￡160。
。 The sum of the digits method： This is more mon in the United
States than in the UK。 While the declining…balance method applies a
constant percentage to a declining figure； this method applies a progressively
smaller percentage to the initial cost。 It involves adding up
the individual numbers in the expected life span of the asset to arrive at
the denominator of a fraction。 The numerator is year number concerned；
but in reverse order。
Accounting 37
For example； if our puter asset bought for ￡1；200 had an expected
useful life of 5 years （unlikely）； then the denominator in our sum would
be 1＋2＋3＋4＋5 which equals 15。 In year 1 we would depreciate by 5/15
times the initial purchase price of ￡1；200； which equals ￡400。 In year 2
we would depreciate by 4/15ths and so on。
These are just three of the most mon of many ways of depreciating
fixed assets。 In choosing which method of depreciation to use； and in practice
you may have to use different methods with different types of asset； it
is useful to remember what you are trying to do。 You are aiming to allocate
the cost of buying the asset as it should apply to each year of its working
life。
Balance sheet and other online tools
SCORE （score 》 Business Tools 》 Template Gallery 》 Balance Sheet
（projected）） is an Excel…based spreadsheet you can use for constructing
your own balance sheet。 You can find guidance on depreciation； on
handling stock and on the layout of the balance sheet and profit and loss
account as required by the panies Act from the Accounting Standards
Board （frc 》 ASB 》 Technical 》 FRSSE）。 Accounting Glossary
（accountingglossary） and Accounting for Everyone （
accountingforeveryone 》 Accounting Glossary） have definitions of all
the accounting terms you are ever likely to e across in the accounting
world。
Package of accounts
The cash…flow statement； the profit and loss account and the balance sheet
between them constitute a set of accounts； but conventionally two balance
sheets； the opening and closing one； are provided to make a ‘package’。
By including these balance sheets we can see the full picture of what has
happened to the owner’s investment in the business。
Table 1。10 shows a simplified package of accounts。 We can see from these；
that over the year the business has made ￡600 of profit a。。er tax； and has
invested that profit in ￡200 of additional fixed assets and ￡400 of working
capital such as stock and debtors； balancing that off with the ￡600 put into
reserves from the year’s profits。
FILING ACCOUNTS
A pany’s financial affairs are in the public domain。 As well as keeping
HM Revenue and Customs （HMCR） informed； panies have to file
Table 1。10 A package of accounts
Balance sheet at 31 Dec 2009 P & L for year to 31 Dec 2010 Balance sheet at 2010
￡’s ￡’s ￡’s
Fixed assets 1；000 Sales 10；000 Fixed assets 1；200
Working capital 1；000 less cost of sales 6；000 Working capital 1；400
2；000 Gross profit 4；000 2；600
less expenses 3；000
Financed by Profit before tax 1；000 Financed by
Owners’ equity 2；000 Tax 400 Owners’ equity 2；000
Profit a。。er tax 600 Reserves 600
2；600
Accounting 39
their accounts with panies House （wwwpanieshouse。gov。uk/
about/gbhtml/gb3。shtml）。 Accounts should be filed within 10 months of
the pany’s financial year…end。 Small businesses （turnover below ￡5。6
million） can file abbreviated accounts that include only very limited balance
sheet and profit and loss account information and these do not need to be
audited。 Businesses can be fined up to ￡1；000 for filing accounts late。
You can find the report and accounts for all panies listed on UK
stock markets at Free pany Report and Accounts （fcreports。
）。 US pany accounts can be obtained from The Securities Exchange
mission （sec。gov）。 The Investor Relations Society （irs。
uk 》 IR Best Practice） makes an award each year to the pany producing
the best set of report and accounts。
FINANCIAL RATIOS
Earlier in this chapter the two important financial statements of profit
and loss account and balance sheet were examined。 To recap – the trading
performance of a pany for a period of time is measured in the profit and
loss account by deducting running costs from sales ine。 A balance sheet
sets out the financial position of the pany at a particular point in time；
usually the end of the accounting period。 It lists the assets owned by the
pany at that date matched by an equal list of the sources of finance。
Reading pany accounts； with practice； you can get some insight into
a pany’s affairs。 paring the current year’s figure with the previous
year’s figure can identify changes in some of the key items； but conclusions
drawn from this approach can be misleading。 Consider the situation shown
in Table 1。11。
You can see that the table is nothing more than a simplified profit and
loss account on the le。。 and the assets section of the balance sheet on the
right。 Any change that increases net profit （more sales； lower expenses；
less tax etc